?????????

by Chang, Yun-chao

(Uncorrected OCR) THE MOVEMENT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY IN

THE LATE CR' ING DYNASTY. (An English SYl1posis)

Ohapter 1 ~he Im~a~t of Russo-Japanese War on China

Since 1840, the Chinese and the Occidental cultures had been brought into closer and more frequent contact which influenced quite considerably tr.le thoughts and ideas o:f the gentry. This led to the three reform movements after 1860:

(1) !~e Self-Strengthening Movement

This was launched as a result of the Arrow War (1857 - 1860) , its obj ective being: "Learn the superior skills of the barbarians to placate barbarians." The reformers, however, were not concerned vdth political or institutional reform.

(2) The ]Iund:r:e.d Days r Re~

The annihilation of the Peiyang fleet during the Sino-Japanese War in 1895 proved the futility of the modernization movement started by the Mancllu officials with a view to enabling China to survive in the modern Vlorld, and this led to the Hundred Days'

Reform initiated by the intelligentsia for the

purpose of bringing about changes in the body

politic. The progressive reforms with m&~Y political changes decreed by the Empress Dowager in 1901 after the Boxer Uprising may be considered as its sequel.

(3) Const~~tiona~ Reforms

That Japan? with a domain of only three islands,

was able to defeat first a gigantio, despotic nation

-- 2 --

C'hina, and a decade later, a povverful, autocratic eneLlY B:usr,la was taken to be due to the success of a limi t e d monarchy. Henc e, Chine s e 8J1\"(JYS in vari ous forei::;n count:des submitted memorials requeDting the re-orc;o.nization of the E;overn1ll81rG officcs under a cOl1nti tution. Appeals made by JJ:nncJ:lu officials, lJCople from all walks of life and OVC::2seas Chir~ese for cO~1sti tutional reforms soon followed. Most of them advocated the adoption of the Japanese system, thinl:ing that since in the Japanese syrTtor-:. the throne still held absolute power wherer'..s i1'[ the Western one, the people's rights were of greater importance, the former would be more readily acceptable to the Inperial court.

Realizing the whole nationts wish of having a

consti tution, the M:anchu regime feigned to accept reform. to appease popular disco::1tent. This gave rise to the aplJointment of a five-man mission to travel abroad to study various polttical sJTstems in 1905. Upon their retFrnj the five officials unanimoLcsly reconuuended the introduction of co'J.sti tutionalism, reportil~ that in ~lropean and Asian oOQ~tries with constitutional governments, the power of emperors was at no risk of being restricted whilst the COLmtries were even more strengthened. Special mention WeceS

r,mae by Duke Tsai-tse of the fact -that in the Japanese constitution there were seventeen irJlperi,"l prerogatives with which the parliament was not in a position to interfere. Thus the real intention of the Manchu government in preparing a constitu~ional monarchy was

as clear as noonday.

-3-

Chapter 2

The Trend of the Reform Movement

? , ~ ._- to ??_

after t~~ Sino-Japanese War

In the late Chting dynasty, there were two altornative reform progr&illUos:

(a) One was offered by Klang Yu-wei, standing for drastic reform but within the framework of the monarchy.

(b) The other vvas campaigned by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, being revoluntionb.ry &"1cl aiming at the establishment of a democratic r8public.

Prior to 1898, Klang Yu-wei seemed to harbour the intention of saving China by attending to the people's needs and enforcing their rights. After he had been summoned to an audience with the Kuang-hsu Emperior, however, he made a complete change in his political views as evidenced by the fact tl1at he regarded the convening of a National Assembly infeasible. Having been forced

to flee to Japen subsequent to the demotion of the Emperor, he composed the "decree wTitten on a piece of cloth from the emperorls coat or belt" (i-iai-chao, i.e. a top-secret decree) and established the Pao-huang Hui (Society for the Protection of the Emperor) with the aid of his disciple Liang Chti-chao. There he published periodicals, first called the Public Opinion Press (Ch'ing-i pa2) in 1898 arid then named the New People's Magazine (Hsin-min ts tu...~8;2.) in 1902, to publicize the ideas of a constitutional monarchy. He toured about Europe9 America and Australia, recruiting constitutional monarchists and publishing newspapers as organs of the Party 7 thereby exerting influence in bringing on needed political and social changes.

In 1892 a nd 18947 Dr. Sun Yat-sen founded the HsingChlUlg Hui (Revive China Society) in Macau and Hawaii, aiming at "driving out the J.18nchu barbarians, restoring China to the Han

--4--

people, establishing a republic and distributing the la:D.c1 equallyll. These were the principles upon i'ihich the San1 :Min Ohu I (Three People's Principles) was based &id from which the constitution of a Chinese republic originated. At first Dr. Sun was quite enthusiastic in coopel'ating with K' a~lg Yu-vvei to plan for the restoratioI'. of China. Liang Ch'i-ch'o.o a':ld Kang's other followers were in favour of the proposal, advocating a revolution involving dest:ruction and assasGination. Upon his return from

the United States in 1903, howeyer, Liang regretted to have advocated revolution and supported instead Kang's idea of a constitutional monarchy.

In the first stage of the revolution, Dr. Sun concentrated his efforts on actl:!.2.1 revolutionary action (e.g. Sw.l inSlurection attempt in C&~ton in 1895). The use of the press to propagruLdize revolution commenced in 1899 when the China Daily News (Chungk'uo Yat PD.:.-

the nonarchists. ReD.ders holding enlighteYH0d views all joined spontaneousl:r the Tu.ng-Meng Hui oamp with the rE'~sult that the entire nation x0sponc1Ml favour2.bly to the l~j.sing in Wuchang at

a later dc.te. Hence, although the heated argLUJ1ents between both Parties were cO;'ltJ:'ao.ictory, yet they contributed greatly towards the success of the revolt in Wuchang.

?

-5-

Chapter 3

The ReadioD of -the I.ntelligol1.tsJi~: -to Autocrac\T

------~ .

.After 1846 the Powers took f),dva'ltage of China' [J n18.nifest

wealmess -[;0 COTilpetf:l in aoquiri:lg privileges '\"11:1.i18 the Mt.1Dchu adDinistrati8:1 Vias corrupt and inefficient. J)r. Sun Yat-sen was of tl18 opinion thst the only way to strengtllen ffi1ina was to ovel~throw the MC.1:1Chu rule e:.ud to ird tiate Western l11(d;hods. In

response to Dr. Sun' G ce,ll~ patriots rallied lUlder the

revolutioDEUY flQg? making inCeSGfult efforts to bring about insurrections. :M:a21chu officials? being much VJorrj.cd? wasted no tilne in plalll"ling to obviate havocs that revolutions Vlould bring in their train.

K'an.g Yu-wei, strongly recommending oon8ti tutional monarchy arld criticising the Empress Dowsger Tzu Rsi? was well supported by the Chinese press. With the exception of Prince Chfing (I-kluang) 8,nd Yuan Shih-kai~ most high-ranl::ing officials regarcled K<.l.Y;.g iNitl"l favour. Some even befriended hir:l at the risk of being accused of aiding and abetting a traitor; some asked

humbly for his advice; ro~d some implored him to draft memorials.

The Marwhus had a.."l inteni38 hatred. :for the revolutionist s.

Though members of the Revolutionary Party were liable to execution when caught, patriots dedicated to the cause were on the increo.se~

and this disturbed the Eaapress Dowager to a considerable extent.

Prince Ch f ing D.:1Q others availed the1:13e1 ves of the opportunity to persuade her to introduce constitutionalism in China as the only neEms to prevent revolts. On 27th AUgtlst, 1908, Imperial orders were given for th8 cOLlpletion of the consti tution~ t11e parliament

a.'-'ld tile electioh lav! in nine years. Thj.s was9 in eSf3ence, an

attempt to counteract the effects of the r('::volutionaries.

-- 6 -

Cha.pter 4 198 Preparation of' Oor~sti tution'll M~~chy ill1d the ~~sy~~~ional RefonQs

Consequent to the Boxer Movement in 1900, the Ch'ing court lost its dignity and power and was oompelled to pretend re:fonll to alleviate the great wave of anti-rlanchu feeling over the oountr'J. The Bureau for tIle Promotion of Political Affairs (Ttu-pan chengv~l-chIU) was first established, but it vias no more than a branch of the Grand CO'LU1cil with actually no new adm.irJistrntion to

promote. In October, 1906, the :Bureau :for the Promotion of Political Affairs Vias ch8.D.ged to the Bureau for the Discussion of Political Affairs (Hui-i cheng-wu-ohfu). In August, 1907, the Bureau for the Disoussion of Political Affairs was brought U<"lder the control of the Grand Secretariat for the reason that as a !rational Assembly (Tzu-oheng yuan) was to meet in 1900, it was neoessary for the Grand Seoreto.riat to take ovor the work of the Bureau f'or the Discussion of Political Affairs with 0.

view to establishing direct coordination between the Govenlment

and the National Assembly.

In order to acquire the political experience of various

Occidental and. Oriental oountries, ministers were sent abroad f'or

follow-up studies of government structures. Moreover, in 1905,

an Imperial edict was issued for the formation of the Bureau for poli tical Inyostign.tjJ)i.1 (Kt ao-ch I a oheng-chih: kuo"n) wIdcll was ch~~geQ in 1905 to the Bureau for Constitutional Compilation (Heien-cheng pien-ehta kuan) und0r the direction of Prince Chting. In 1911, a cabinet \'1:18 set up, hended by the Prim.e Minister tl.l.1d

the Vice Minister.

To ensure that th~ codes forrrmlo.ted by the Bureau for Consti tutiono.l Oompilation would benefit the c01.mtry a..'Ylc1

convenience the people, the Buroau for Statistics was established

-- 7 --

to collate the :pnrticulars supplied by provincie,l info:r:Cl2tioll bureaus 2J1d ministrial statistical offices. COllSti tutional GOV0rJ:1.r,lont PrGp2.nl,ticn Bureaus (Hsien-cheng ch' ou-pei-elm) were also ordered to b8 orC:8.nised in eaeh ministry Ei.nd each prOyj-Ylce for the promotion of COEsti tutioD2.l poll ty.

Sensing the in'.JJ.i:':lGnt threats of revolutj.ons, schol:ns an.d officials submitted petitions repeatedly to the Throne 9 irrploring to elimina te the bC.rrier between the Manchus and the Han people. In 1908, the est8.blishment of a Bureau for the Moc1ified ]r;.nnor Systen was dec~~eed to revise the etiquette which was to be followed by both races, to remove the suppression of the Hm1 people and the discrimination against them in filling goverlment vacancies, to taj,:e the birthplaces of Eannerm.en as tb.oir native places ancl to porn:d. t interracial marriage betv/een Hr.w:l.chus and Han peoplee As the MD..llchu authorities had selfish illotives? these

reforra measures brought forth results cOY1.tr:J.ry to exy)octations.

As regc..r<3.s the Ii "'re]j.hood of' the Eight Ba:n.ners, a clecree crone out orderin2; the im.plementation of' t1:>.8 follovving [~Chem8s:

(a) ForD8.tion of Bureau for Educational Affairs of Eight

EmmeT's.

(b) Grn::lt of farming lnnd to Bannermon. (c) Vomltj.onal Trniningo

(0.) Absorption of Be.nnermen into armed nr,d pol:Lce forcos.

As the I-iianchus had been obj ecting to the localization of the

Ej.Sb:t BD.nners1 the schemes Vlere hopeless of' success.

- 8 .?-

Chapter 5 The.)reparati~, of Const:\. ti.1.t,:Lonai ~o11;arohX and the Lef)al }l~_fo~

In 1900. tl'l0 E:m.press decreed for l'oforms to be OfJ,l':r1.ed. out by" a cO!Jl.I1iss:Lon of fJix high-ranking offioialfH In. cOl:lSequenc('l, L1U IC}iL.>1-..;t, vio~ro:Y' of 10.0.11&;$1. o.xid dhelt:l.tlhg, and Chang Ohi .?tung. 'Vicol'oy of Hupeh Ql:lcl Hun8i1} subl"ili tted. j o~ntly -\;0 the ElupreGs three memoria.ls propos:1.ngf inter o.11t\, reforms of la:w an.d jus?i

(1,) Codes of ar:l.mina1. end oivil proeedurQ~h (2) Existing criminal code.

(3) New criminal OOde,

(4) Laws for organization of courts~ (5) Oommereial eode.

(6) Laws for gatherings and formation of a$sociation$ or soeieties,

(7) Press lawS.

The ending of torture and death by exaessively painful methods and the abolition of the idea of eollec~ive responsibility

,

were important judieial changes. In practice, however, they were

rarely ~omplied vdth. From 1907 to 1911~ Gourts of justices ,U1d p:roeuratora:tes were set up in the ea))i tal, provineial tovvns and treaty ports. To train proper judicial personnel, jUdicial administration colleges were established in each provinae, ap~rt from the founding of judicial adwinistration and law colleges for M&~ehu nobles. Furthermore, coroner-training sahools were attached to courts of justice, prison 'Nardens' courses were offered by judicial administration college~ and model prisons were erected in principal tovms having a large trade~ ~hese measures, though introduced with little aeoompliShraent, marked nn

~dYano~ in 149d8rnizn:~iop.

- 9-

Chapter 6 ~~~ .;Re,orgcmization of G;oV:e.~~.!rt

13ys'temanq the E-

..

moii ct0p~inioll

In September; 1906, re:.modelling of the o.drninistrnt:toh bn.8ed on the r aport of the five ministers to the Empress Dovmger afte:r their investignt1vo trip \vas decreed. Orgard .. za.tion of the Grano. Oouncil rOllained. 'lUlchangedl The nC\7 list of the Ca.binet inoluded seven Mf'..11oh'Us; four HDl'1S, 011e MOllgUi and one Ha.n BmU10rnla.h.

, " .. '. ',~ ~'. " . ", ~ .

Ed~tor~a1s In both dhlnese und foreign newspapers all exprossed

disappointment of this aoncentration of power with rolti-Han discrimination.

Sinee 1851, vioeroys and governors had been chief 1000.1 administrators who controlled all political, military, finm'1cial and jUdioia1 matters. In 1907, the re-shaping of the local governmental system was proclaimed, but the changes effected involved only minor adjustments. Although viceroys and gove~lors retained their a~~nistrative authority, their military powers were absorbed into the ministry of the army. Upon YUml Shih-?k~aits expulsion, the Han people were stripped of all political powers.

Members of prOVincial assemblies and the National AS8emb~y were supposed to be elected, but were in reality selected by the goveJ:11..ment. As the National Assembly had no IGgj.slo,tive pOWer, all provineial assemblies were of the opinion that unleSS a parliament VIas called, survival of the country could not be ensured. Between 1909 and 1910, four petitions were submitted to the ~hrono9 requesting the early inauguration of a parliamont.

All provincial assem.blies were strong supporters of a cons-ti tuiiionnl government, but their supplications 'were

?..? 10 .???

~eas6h8b~y rejected by the Oh~ing cbUtt, Persecution and ~~i~~ 0:1' memperi;l D.~restea. ensUed. ~n bi tte:r disa.ppoj.ntment, provincial assemblies pUt t11eir hbPeson:,):!eY~iW'h:tohs. Thin iJ.dcountfJd :foi' the good response to ,the uprising 1+1 W\lcha.ng.

Chapter 7'

ClondlUs:l.onS

r1 'f 1 ?r ?.?

The lnt? Ch'ing dynasty so.\7; the construc'tiohof ro.:Uwa.ys as one part of the reform programm&. However, ovdng to the exhaustion of finrolcial resources, foreign loons were floated on Ver,y unfaTou:ro.ble terms. In spite of severe opposition of the Han people, the Manohu gover.r~ent proposed to borrow money from :foreign coun-tries and to nationalize all :!:no-in lines on the tolloWil1g gro~U1d81

(1) Railway construdtlon by provincial interests proved too slow and inefficient.

(2) ~he lines mD.lla?;ep. 1?;r

(3) The consortium of the banks of the tou~ Powers (England, Germany, France and the United States) forced th~ government at Peking to make lOan~!

On ~~h May, 1911 the policy of nationalizing the railroads was de~lare4 by ~ impe~ial decree. This created aTl uproar, especi.s.lly in Szechwan, Kwangtung, Hunan ruld Hupeh because in the decree there Was no mention ot the seven million dol1~s of ~ady money collected for building that section o~ the railway passing through Szechwan and the deposits of some three million dollal's in private bonlcs were denied. The discontent in Szeohvran, aggravated by suppressive measures recommended by Sheng HsuanhUai~ Tuen Fang ~~d Chao Erh-feng and resulting in m~y deaths,

~oon spread like wild fire which eould not be brought under ~ontr.ot~

-- 11 -

Vihen members of the Revolutionary Party in the Wuchang area were plotting an insurrection to take advantage of the unrest in Szechwan, a clandestine organization of the Pnrty was w"'1covered

on 9th October, 1911, leading to the confiscation of a list of Party members. U~ soldiers whose nF.~es were on the Pnrty rolls were worried and insisted upon prompt actiol1. On lOth October, 1911, three days ahead of schedule, the new army units stationed at Wuchang struck. '\iifhen the news of the success of the Wuchang uprisi.."'l.g reached other provinces, there wo.s Qll almost immeidate response. Dr. Sun Yat-sen was unill~imously chosen provisional president. To cope VIi th the grave situation, the Manchus had to recall YUD-.'l'1 Shih-1;:I ai. Yuan made use of the oppo:rtuni'ty to negotiate with the revolutionaries and then force the dynasty to abdicate so as to achieve his life's ambition of inheriting power from the Manchu emperor.

The reaons for the fall of the Manchu dynasty were muny, the chief ones being as follows:

(a) A responsible cabinet was eventually orgn.n:ized in May, 1911 at repeated requests. Ar.a.ong the 'thirteen cabinet members (all of whom had cahinet r&~r), there were only four Hans while of the eight Mf.illchus five were members of the royal family, and the thirteenth cabinet member was a Mongolian Bannerman. This cabinet was called by contemporc.ries the "royal cabinet", as it was against the spirit of' constitutionalism.

(b) The Mnnchu officials, affected by tho corrupt and stagnant atmosphere, were mostly inefficient and

incapable.

(c) Above all, m~~y officials sneerod at what they called the "trifling arts" of the Occident and mainto.ined that Ohinese culture WaS in every way superior to

-12 -

that oi: the "b.srbarians ". For eXG..luple s, :Prince Ch'ing, Wang Wen-shao, Lu Chtum~-lin, ffi~tu Hung-chi a:n.d Shih 81m were against the oo.lling of' a parlio.:ment, and Sheng Yun, Sung Shou, 011 ten K'ueilung and Cho.ng Jen-ohun were apposed to constitutionalism. With such ignornnt and conceited of~icials, how could the d~lasty survive!?